Leveraging chip variability

ABSTRACT

Embodiments are described that leverage variability of a chip. Different areas of a chip vary in terms of reliability under a same operating condition. The variability may be captured by measuring errors over different areas of the chip. A physical factor that affects or controls the likelihood of an error on the chip can be varied. For example, the voltage supplied to a chip may be provided at different levels. At each level of the physical factor, the chip is tested for errors within the regions. Some indication of the error statistics for the regions is stored and then used to adjust power used by the chip, to adjust reliability behavior of the chip, to allow applications to control how the chip is used, to compute a signature uniquely identifying the chip, etc.

BACKGROUND

Chips, and in particular memory chips, are manufactured and provided topurchasers with a guarantee that a chip will most likely operate withouterrors if operated within parameters specified by the manufacturer. Thatis to say, a chip may be designed to provide error-free data storage ifthe chip is within a certain age, temperature, voltage, clock frequency,refresh rate, or other similar error-sensitive operation factor. DRAMchips in particular are overdesigned so that every cell among thebillions on a chip loses data only with a very low probability undernormal operating conditions. However, almost all of the memory cells ina typical DRAM chip can hold their value even if the operatingconditions are changed. If a DRAM chip is refreshed at abelow-recommended rate, almost all of the cells in the chip willcontinue to accurately retain their assigned values. As a result,typical DRAM chips are consuming power in the form of refresh power thatis unnecessary for their effective operation. FIG. 1 illustrates thisconcept.

FIG. 1 shows a graph 100. The graph 100 reflects expected error behaviorfor a chip over a range of values for an error-sensitive factor (ESF).Suppose, for example, that the ESF is temperature. Suppose also thatwhen operated at a manufacturer's recommended power-related settings(e.g., voltage, refresh rate, etc.) the chip has a probability oferror-free operation that varies as a function of the temperature, asrepresented by solid line 102. Note that at some ESF values theprobability of error may be well below what is needed or practical use(e.g., failure might occur once in a hundred years of continuousoperation). Suppose that a desired maximum probability of error is a.Note that at the manufacturer's specified power level, the probabilityof error will always be below a. However, if the chip is operated withless power, even though the probability of error generally increases, asshown by line 104, below some ESF values, the probability of error willbe below a.

Not only are chips often over-provisioned with respect to current oractual conditions or ESF values, they may be over-provisioned forcertain portions of a chip. Chip manufacturing is an intricate processwith considerable intra-process variation. There are variations fromchip to chip. Chip manufacturers set a threshold for rejecting chipsthat do not conform to a specified quality threshold (measured in termsof performance, errors-per-chip, etc.). However, such thresholds areusually set low to ensure adequate yields, especially for commoditychips like DRAM chips. As a result, there is considerable variation evenamong chips that pass quality control. Some chips may have areas orregions that are more error-tolerant than other regions and thereforemay require less power.

Embodiments described herein relate to leveraging variations in chipsfor both power optimization and unique identification.

SUMMARY

The following summary is included only to introduce some conceptsdiscussed in the Detailed Description below. This summary is notcomprehensive and is not intended to delineate the scope of the claimedsubject matter, which is set forth by the claims presented at the end.

Embodiments are described that leverage variability of a chip. Differentareas of a chip vary in terms of reliability under a same operatingcondition. The variability may be captured by measuring errors overdifferent areas of the chip. A physical factor that affects or controlsthe likelihood of an error on the chip can be varied. For example, thevoltage supplied to a chip may be provided at different levels. At eachlevel of the physical factor, the chip is tested for errors within theregions. Some indications of the error statistics for the regions arestored and then used to adjust power used by the chip, to adjustreliability behavior of the chip, to allow applications to control howthe chip is used, to compute a signature uniquely identifying the chip,etc.

Many of the attendant features will be explained below with reference tothe following detailed description considered in connection with theaccompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The present description will be better understood from the followingdetailed description read in light of the accompanying drawings, whereinlike reference numerals are used to designate like parts in theaccompanying description.

FIG. 1 shows a graph.

FIG. 2 shows example regional variations of a chip.

FIG. 3 shows a system for building a statistical model of regional errorcharacteristics of a chip.

FIG. 4 shows example error measurement statistics for a chip.

FIG. 5 shows an example of general use of a regional error profile of achip.

FIG. 6 shows an embodiment to reduce power used by a chip.

FIG. 7 shows a process for adjusting the error behavior of a chip.

FIG. 8 shows a power-saving embodiment in a computer.

FIG. 9 shows a computer.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG. 2 shows example regional variations of a chip 120. Because thequality of production within a chip 120 may vary significantly, areas orregions 122 of a chip may vary in their ability to accurately store dataunder varying conditions. Such conditions will be referred to aserror-sensitive physical traits, environmental parameters, operationalparameters, or, for ease of discussion, error-sensitive factors (ESFs).An ESF may be thought of as any physical aspect of a chip that directlyaffects the probability that the cells of a chip will incorrectly storedata. In other words, when an ESF changes (e.g., voltage drops,temperature rises) the reliability of the chip also changes. When an ESFchanges for a chip, there is a change in the probability that a bitvalue stored in any cell of the chip will be the same as a bit valueread from that cell. In short, changes in one or more ESFs affect theprobability that a cell's value will erroneously flip. Note that thesource of an error may in general also exist in the logic or wiring thatconnects memory cells, as these are also affected by ESFs. These errorsmay arise in the form of propagation delay or non-linear circuiteffects.

As noted, regions 122 of a chip may have varying reliability. Someregions 122 may have higher or lower probabilities of errors than otherregions 122 under a same set of ESFs. Although an ESF may be measured ina way that suggests an ESF is the same over all regions 122, in reality,at any given time, an ESF's measureable value at different regions 122may actually vary. A chip may have hot spots, areas where voltage isslightly higher or lower, and so on. Nonetheless, for purposes herein,an ESF may be treated as a uniform property. For instance, if a chip ismeasured as having a given input voltage, the voltage will vary withinthat chip in a consistent way. When a chip is sensed as having a singleapparent chip-wide temperature at different times, if other ESFs aresubstantially unchanged, any region will have nearly the sametemperature at those times, even if the temperature of the regiondiffers from the measured or sensed temperature. Thus, it may be seenthat if a chip's error behavior is to be modeled in terms of ESFs, asingle same measure of an ESF will be sufficient to model the errorbehaviors of the regions of the chips.

Referring again to the example of FIG. 2, the ESF will be assumed to betemperature, and the value at a given time will be assumed to be 3temperature units. A graph in each region 122 of error-rate 124 as afunction of temperature 126 illustrates how regions differ 122 under asame ESF. At ESF of temperature=3, the error rate for region R1 is 6(e.g., 6 errors per 1 trillion reads). At region R13, under the same ESFvalue, the error rate is 3. Not only is there regional variation, butthat variation can change as the ESF value changes (usuallymonotonically). As will be explained, this regional variation in errorlikelihood can be measured, modeled, and used to advantage.

FIG. 3 shows a system for building a statistical model of regional errorcharacteristics of a chip 138. If there are multiple ESFs to test, acomputer 140 begins by selecting 142 an ESF. For example, voltage may beselected 142. The current value of the selected 142 ESF is measured,set, or varied 144. For instance, the voltage may be set to 1.7 V usingan appropriate device 145 such as test board, motherboard, etc. In thecase of temperature, temperature may be induced by a heater 147.Measurement may performed by a sensor 149 (which may be on the chip 138or near it). In the case of voltage, a line reading may be taken. In thecase of clock speed, the clock speed may be measured or obtained from astored setting.

Given the ESF value, the process then involves measuring 146 errorbehaviors for various regions of chip 138 at the ESF value. The errormeasuring 146 can be performed in numerous ways. A data pattern such asall-1s, all-0s, random bits, interleaved strings of 0s and 1s, etc., isstored to and read from 148 the chip 138. When the data is read, theread values are compared against the original data. Each region beingtested has an error counter. When an error is encountered (e.g., a word,bit, etc. does not match its original value), the error counter for thecorresponding region is incremented 150. The storing, reading, andcounting are repeated and the number of loops (reads and writes) isstored 152 along with the error information or error count of eachtested region. Note that for each store and read 148 iteration and/orfor each varied value of the ESF, the data pattern may be varied, forexample, the data pattern may be randomly selected from a dictionary ofpatterns, or alternated between all-zeros and all-ones, etc. In additionto the write-read-compare technique, in cases where errors are morelikely to be related to logic delays and clock rate, bit scan chains andtest patterns can be used to generate and seek errors.

In one embodiment, the ESF is tested for different values of the currentESF; if there are other 154 values to test, the ESF value is varied 144(e.g., voltage is lowered from 1.7 V to 1.6 V), and the measuring 146and storing 152 are repeated for that value. In one embodiment, it maybe sufficient to test for only one value of the ESF. For example, thebehavior of a chip family or material or the general affect of the ESFmay allow error behavior of a region to be extrapolated to other valuesof the ESF.

If 154 the ESF is to be tested for multiple values, the varying 144,measuring 146, and storing 152 are repeated as needed. When errors havebeen measured and stored 152 for the value(s) of an ESF, if 156 there isanother ESF to test, then another ESF is selected 142, and the varying144 and measuring 146 are repeated. Otherwise, the process is finished158.

From the numerous store, read, and compare cycles, the error behavior ofa region can be derived from the number of cycles and the number ofcumulative detected errors. For example, at a given ESF value, oneregion might have 1 error in 1,000,000 cycles, and another region mighthave 5 errors in those same 1,000,000 cycles. Errors might also becharacterized in terms of clock cycles, overall test time, errors peramount of data read/written, and so on.

FIG. 4 shows example error measurement statistics for a chip. Each table170 may correspond to a different ESF or ESF combination. For example,table 172 stores statistics for temperature. The table 172 has a columnfor each region of the chip (a column contains information correspondingto a graph in FIG. 2). An error rate or error statistic of a givenregion at a given ESF and value thereof can be looked up in thecorresponding table 170. In one embodiment, an error function or errorprofile for a chip is implemented as one or more tables 170 as shown inFIG. 4. In another embodiment, a polynomial or other function may bederived that approximates the error profile of the chip. That is, thefunction may return an estimated error probability or statistic for aspecified region, ESF value(s), etc. Generally, the error function orerror behavior information for a chip, regardless of form, will be ableto provide an error characteristic or expected error rate for aspecified chip region at a specified ESF value. The error function of achip will also be referred to as an error profile. While error rateswill be used as example error traits, any type of error statistic may beused. For example, a chip may be more error sensitive when an ESF ischanging or changes rapidly, therefore rate of change in an errorstatistic, correlation of errors in relation to rate of change in anESF, or others, may be used.

It should be noted that the regions of a chip can take any form. Aregion may be determined by physical construction of the chip, byaddressing features, etc. A region or area need not be a contiguous unit(either physically or in address space), but as used herein will beconsidered to include any collection of areas or parts of the chip,e.g., interleaved segments or words, etc. Furthermore, not all parts ofa chip need to be measured or included in the chip's error function. Forexample, regions that have similar error traits may be grouped as asingle region. Or, regions that have a similar error rate function maybe represented by one of such regions. Note that in some instantiationsregions may have different sizes.

An error profile for a chip may have multiple dimensions. For example,temperature may be varied by 5 degree increments, and each increment maybe measured for errors over a range of voltages. Thus, an error functionmay map a region, temperature, and voltage to an error rate. For ease ofdiscussion, examples will have a single ESF. As used herein, an “errorrate” includes not only a rate of errors, but also a probability of anerror, a measure of reliability, and so forth.

When an error profile for a chip has been obtained, the error profilemay be used for many purposes. FIG. 5 shows an example of general use ofa regional error profile of a chip. Suppose that a chip such as a DRAMchip is in active use in a computer or other electronic device. Supposealso that an ESF value is obtained 190. This may be a current value forany type of ESF as described. For example, the chip or a controllerthereof (a memory controller, a memory board, etc.) may be queried toobtain 190 the current refresh rate for the chip. Given this ESF value,the error profile or error information for the chip is consulted anderror rates (or other indicia of statistical error probabilities) at thegiven value are determined 192 for one or more regions of the chip. Thedetermined 192 error rates or similar information are used to adjust 194the operation of the chip. In one embodiment, the adjusting may involveexcluding some regions from being used, for example. In anotherembodiment, regions are prioritized so that regions less likely to havean error are used first. Conversely, a setting affecting power usage ofthe chip may be adjusted. In other embodiments, some regions may beoperated using a faster or slower clock rate or using a faster or slowerrefresh rate.

The adjusting 194 may also involve determining if there is a level of anadjustable ESF that can be set to a new value in view of a desiredreliability or power setting. For instance, if an application oroperating system running on a computer using the chip specifies adesired level of error probability or error tolerance (e.g.,high/medium/low, or some specific number such as a probability oferror), then the error profile can be consulted to identify regions ofthe chip (or corresponding pages of memory) that would operate withacceptable reliability at a different ESF value.

FIG. 6 shows an embodiment to reduce power used by a chip. A desiredpower level is received 210. The power level may be in the form of anactual setting such as “set clock rate to X”, or “reduce voltage by Y”,or the like. The error profile for the chip is consulted and the errorrates for regions are found 212 at the desired power level. In oneembodiment, the available regions are reported 214. In response, acontrol mechanism such as hardware or software may change 216 the actuallevel of the ESF supplied to the chip (e.g., the voltage is reduced orthe refresh rate is changed). In another embodiment, the desired ESFlevel is adjusted upward or downward if there is insufficient or toomuch memory available at the initial desired ESF level, and the finding212 is repeated until a more suitable ESF level is found. In this way,an ESF level setting can be found that will reduce power consumptionwithin some bound such as ratio or size of memory available (i.e., ableto perform with sufficient reliability) for use at the desired ESFlevel.

It will be appreciated that the ability to obtain error information forregions of a chip can be used in almost any way to reduce powerconsumption by the chip. In yet another embodiment, a chip may have aspecial portion integrated with error-correction coding (ECC)functionality in the chip. The ECC portion of the chip may besupplemented with regional error information, thus allowing the ECC tooperate with greater reliability or efficiency. If the ECC functionalityof the chip is detecting more or less errors, the chip may use thisinformation to adjust an ESF to be able to run using more or less power.

In one embodiment, a current ESF value may be used. For instance, atemperature of the chip may indicate, according to the error profile ofthe chip, that all regions are currently able to operate at anacceptable level of reliability, perhaps as a result of a lowtemperature value. In response, an operating parameter of the chip, suchas memory refresh rate, may be adjusted to lower its power consumption.This example shows that it may be helpful to vary one ESF (e.g., refreshrate) in response to an external setting of another (e.g., temperature)that cannot be controlled.

FIG. 7 shows a process for adjusting the error behavior of a chip. Someindication of a change in error behavior is received 230. For example, asignal may indicate that error tolerance should be raised, lowered, setto some specified level, etc. A measure of an ESF may be obtained 232.If the desired acceptable error rate is to be increased, then a powerlevel or other setting of the chip may be found 234 that will, accordingto the chip's profile, allow the desired error level to be achieved. Inthe case where the error tolerance is to be raised, an operating levelor power supply level is adjusted according to the error profile in away that allows a sufficient number of regions to operate at the desirederror level. Accordingly, regions may be identified that meet the errorlevel and may be used 236 or given priority by a hardware controller, anoperation system, a memory manager, or an application.

The error profile of a chip may also be used to allow an application toselect memory based on reliability needed by the application. Forexample, an application may have some data for which reliability isimportant. The operating system may have a memory manager that obtainsinformation about what portions of physical memory (in the form of oneor more memory chips with error profiles) are more or less reliable at agiven current level of an ESF (or even without an ESF value). Theoperating system may then use this region-specific reliability or errorrate/probability information to assign memory. When the applicationrequests low reliability memory, the memory may be drawn from regions ofone or more chips that are determined to be less reliable (perhaps at agiven current ESF measurement or value). When the application requestshigh reliability memory, regions are selected and assigned accordingly.

In another embodiment, a global approach may be taken. Power consumptionmay be reduced across an entire computer or subsystems thereof. Forexample, a clock rate might be lowered. The clock rate is passed to theerror rate functions of the computer's memory chips to determine whichregions of one or more chips are below a desired level of reliability.Those regions are then flagged by the operating system or memorycontroller as unavailable. Thus total available memory size is tradedfor reduction of power.

In another embodiment, a computer or software thereon may make dynamicadjustments to a setting that affects power consumption by analyzing theamount of memory that is being used. When there are substantial portionsof memory not in use, the system may look for regions that have an errorrate below some threshold at a given value of the setting. Or, thesystem may pick an incrementally lower or higher value of the setting,use the error profile of a chip to determine error rates for regions atthat level, and select the regions that would operate with sufficientreliability. In this way, a system can lower its power consumption whileassuring that only memory that has a desired error rate or lower isused. If memory consumption increases, more memory may be made availableby increasing the setting (thereby increasing power use) and finding andreturning to service regions that, according to their error profile andnew setting, will be sufficiently reliable.

FIG. 8 shows a power-saving embodiment in a computer 248. A signal 250initiates a power reduction procedure. The signal 250 may originate fromwithin a DRAM chip, from a controller, from a circuit board on which thechip is installed, or from an application or operating system 252, orthe like. The signal 250 may trigger a power adjustment module 254. Thepower adjust module 254 may obtain a measurement from a sensor 256 (orstored setting), for example, temperature, line voltage, current refreshrate, etc. The ESF value from the sensor 256 is passed to an error ratefunction 258 that returns information about error rates or reliabilityof regions of a chip according to the ESF value. In one embodiment, theerror rate function 258 may perform power analysis to identify andreturn a power-related setting that would be acceptable. In anotherembodiment, the error rate function 258 returns information about whichregions can tolerate a lower power setting, what are the expected errorrates at a next lower power level, etc. The power adjustment module 254uses this information to adjust a current power setting. For example,the voltage or clock rate may be lowered.

An error profile of a chip may be used for other purposes besidesproviding reliability granularity and power adjustments. Due tovariations in manufacture processes and materials, the error profile foreach chip at each setting of any one or more ESF values differs. Thus,the error profile can be used to uniquely identify a chip therefore maybe used as a unique hardware or computer identifier which can be used todetect counterfeit chips, detect software piracy, verify identity foronline transactions, and others. As described above, an error profilecan be computed by measuring error rates at one or more ESFs such asinput voltage, refresh rate, and/or temperature (which will be referredto as x). In one embodiment a mean error rate for the entire chip ismeasured directly or computed from the error rates of a known profile.The mean error rate for the chip at x will be referred to as E(x). Theerror rate of a region Ri will be: e(x, i), which is the error orreliability function for the chip. A signature bit for a region Ri willbe computed as:

f(x, i)=sign(e(x, i)−E(x)).

In other words, a bit for a region is 1 if it is above the average and 0if it is below the average. The overall chip fingerprint is aconcatenation or set of the bits of the regions, e.g., f(x, 1), f(x, 2),. . . f(x, K) across K regions of the chip. Of course because eachregion's error rate may be thought of as a random variable, any varietyof signature functions may be derived for the error profile. Moreover,it is possible that the signature can be computed for an assumed orbaseline x (representing the value(s) of the ESF(s) of the errorprofile)), rather than a measured x. Because the error rates for aregion and a chip tend to be monotonic, for some chips the error ratefor a region will usually be above the average (or below the average)for the range of x. In one embodiment, a region may be selected forinclusion in the signature only if its error rate differs from the meanby more than some threshold. Finally, a comparison between apre-computed signature and a current computed signature can be performedusing a Hamming distance or the like, thus allowing a match to bedetermined even if some small number of bits differ.

Note that error profiles of a chip may change with time. If the changeis significant, an error profile can be recomputed. The error profilemay also be designed to model age such that as the chip ages its errorprofile adapts to the age of the chip.

It should be noted that embodiments described above may be performed byspecial-purpose on-chip hardware, by software or controller hardwarethat is not part of the chip, or a combination of both. In a hardwareembodiment, a chip may be provided with a special region that is able tocompute a profile as discussed above. In another hardware embodiment, adedicated part of a chip may be designed to run at different parametersand dynamically measure the error rate thereof dynamically. For example,a small region may be able to change its own input voltage or refreshrate and then check for errors in the region. This error rate may thenserve as an error profile for the chip.

In another embodiment, an error profile may be based on hierarchies ofregions.

CONCLUSION

FIG. 9 shows computer 248. The computer may have processor(s) 270 andstorage 272. Embodiments and features discussed above can be realized bythe processor(s) 270 and storage 272. The storage 272 may be in the formof volatile or non-volatile computer or device readable media, which maystore information in cooperation with the processor(s) 270 to implementembodiments described herein. The storage 272 may take any form thatallows ready access to digital information by the computer 248, forexample, optical storage (e.g., CD-ROM), magnetic media, flash ROM, orany current or future means of storing digital information. The storedinformation can be in the form of machine executable instructions (e.g.,compiled executable binary code), source code, bytecode, or any otherinformation that can be used to enable or configure computing devices toperform the various embodiments discussed above. This is also deemed toinclude at least volatile memory such as RAM and/or virtual memorystoring information such as CPU instructions during execution of aprogram carrying out an embodiment, as well as non-volatile mediastoring information that allows a program or executable to be loaded andexecuted. The embodiments and features can be performed on any type ofcomputing device, including portable devices, workstations, servers,mobile wireless devices, and so on.

1. A method of obtaining an error profile for a chip, the methodcomprising: measuring error statistics for respective regions of a chipover a range of values of a physical characteristic of the chip; storingindicia of the error statistics; and using the indicia of the errorstatistics to control operation of the chip.
 2. A method according toclaim 1, wherein the chip comprises a memory chip.
 3. A method accordingto claim 1, wherein the physical characteristic comprises a temperature,an age or time of use of the chip, a voltage of the chip, a refresh rateof the chip, or a clock speed of the chip.
 4. A method according toclaim 1, wherein the using the indicia of the error statistics comprisesadjusting a refresh rate of the chip, or adjusting a voltage of thechip, or adjusting a clock speed of the chip, or adjusting a temperatureof the chip, or adjusting power consumption of the chip.
 5. A methodaccording to claim 4, further comprising obtaining a current value ofthe physical characteristic of the chip while the chip is in operationas a component of a computer, and the using comprises obtaining indiciaof error statistics of the regions of the chip based on the currentvalue.
 6. A method according to claim 5, wherein an application oroperating system running on a computer that includes the chip specifiesan error level, and the using comprises identifying one or more regionsof the chip.
 7. A method according to claim 6, wherein the identifiedregions are either used to set a voltage or refresh rate or clock rateof the chip, or the identified regions are marked or prioritized suchthat the operating system or application uses memory according to themarked or prioritized regions.
 8. One or more computer-readable storagestoring information that causes a computer to perform a process, theprocess comprising: obtaining a desired operational parameter of thechip; accessing regional error statistic information describing errorstatistics of respective regions of the chip; and using the regionalerror statistic information to operate the chip at the desiredoperational parameter.
 9. One or more computer-readable storageaccording to claim 8, wherein the desired operational parametercomprises a clock rate, a refresh rate, a temperature, a powerconsumption, or a voltage.
 10. One or more computer-readable storageaccording to claim 8, wherein the desired operational parametercomprises an indication of a desired error setting, and the usingcomprises determining a clock rate, refresh rate, temperature, powerconsumption, or voltage based on one or more regional error statisticsof one or more respective regions of the chip provided by the errorstatistic information.
 11. One or more computer-readable storageaccording to claim 10, wherein the chip is operated at the determinedclock rate, refresh rate, temperature, power consumption, or voltage.12. One or more computer-readable storage according to claim 8, furthercomprising receiving a measure of a current physical attribute of thechip, the regional error statistic information comprises indicia oferror statistics of the regions according to the measure, and a subsetof the regions are identified based on the regional error statisticinformation.
 13. One or more computer-readable storage according toclaim 12, wherein the operational parameter comprises a setting for thechip that determines a power consumption of the chip and the usingincreases the overall likelihood of errors occurring on the chip.
 14. Amethod comprising: forcing errors to occur on a chip by altering a levelof an error-sensitive factor of the chip, and measuring errors ofrespective areas of the chip while at the altered level, theerror-sensitive factor comprising a physical trait of the chip such thata likelihood of an error occurring on the chip changes in proportion tochanges in the level of the error-sensitive factor; and using indicia ofthe measuring of errors to store an area-specific error function,wherein an area of the chip is identified to the area-specific functionand the area-specific function returns information indicating an errorstatistic for the region.
 15. A method according to claim 14, furthercomprising using the area-specific error function to perform error orpower management while an application uses memory comprising the chip.16. A method according to claim 15, wherein the chip comprises a DRAMchip and the using comprises increasing use of some areas of the chipand decreasing use of other areas of the chip, or increasing ordecreasing a setting of the chip that controls how much power is used bythe chip.
 17. A method according to claim 14, further comprisingreceiving a current level of the error-sensitive physical trait, usingthe function to obtain indicia of error statistics of areas based on thecurrent level, computing a signature of the chip based on the indicia oferror statistics, and comparing the signature with a signature from apre-computed signature function.
 18. A method according to claim 14,wherein the measuring errors comprises repeatedly reading and writingdata to the chip and counting an error for an area when data read fromthe area is determined to differ from data previously written to thearea.
 19. A method according to claim 14, wherein errors of an area aremeasured at different levels of the error-sensitive physical trait ofthe chip, and the function comprises a level parameter such that whenprovided with a level value via the parameter the function obtains anerror statistic for an area that is specific to the level value.
 20. Amethod according to claim 14, wherein the error-sensitive physical traitcomprises a voltage powering the chip or a frequency at which the chipoperates, or a rate at which the memory is refreshed.